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Finally, the drawbacks of current research, future development, and future direction of nanodroplets are discussed. More importantly, this review provides examples of variable chemistry components in nanodroplets which link them to their efficiency as ultrasound-multimodal imaging agents to image and monitor drug delivery. In this review, the commonly used materials and preparation methods of nanodroplets are summarised. However, the chemistry of the nanodroplet components has not been discussed or reviewed yet. Recent reviews on nanodroplets are mostly focused on the mechanism of cavitation and their applications in biomedical fields. This allows drugs to be delivered efficiently into deeper tissues where tumours are located. As ultrasound is applied at different frequencies and powers, nanodroplets have been shown to cavitate by the process of acoustic droplet vapourisation (ADV), causing the development of mechanical forces which promote sonoporation through cellular membranes. Nanodroplets - emerging phase-changing sonoresponsive materials - have attracted substantial attention in biomedical applications for both tumour imaging and therapeutic purposes due to their unique response to ultrasound. This paper specifically focuses on the activation and deactivation properties of laser-activated PFCnDs and associated US/PA imaging approaches, and briefly discusses their theranostic potential and future directions.
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Blood barrier opening for neurological applications was recently demonstrated with optically-triggered PFCnDs. As PFCnDs can carry therapeutic drugs or other particles, they can be used for drug delivery, as well as photothermal and photodynamic therapies. PFCnDs can also be an effective therapeutic tool. Furthermore, due to their sub-micrometer size, PFCnDs can be used for molecular imaging of extravascular tissue. In addition, synchronous application of both acoustic and optical pulses showed a promising outcome vaporizing PFCnDs with lower activation thresholds. Therefore, these configurable properties of activation and deactivation of PFCnDs are employed to enable various imaging approaches, including contrast-enhanced imaging and super-resolution imaging. Depending on the choice of perfluorocarbon core, the vaporization and condensation dynamics of the PFCnDs are controllable.
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Unlike monophase gaseous microbubbles, PFCnDs shift their state from liquid to gas via optical activation and can provide high US/PA contrast on demand. Laser-activated perfluorocarbon nanodroplets (PFCnDs) are emerging phase-change contrast agents that showed promising potential in ultrasound and photoacoustic (US/PA) imaging. Novel in their simplicity, these methods may promote the use of PFCnDs among a broader user base to study a variety of extravascular phenomena. These data indicate that, through a facile synthesis process, it is possible to produce monodisperse, small-sized PFCnDs. Finally, we highlight the ability of this approach to facilitate US/PA imaging in a murine model of breast cancer. Furthermore, our imaging studies revealed that nanodroplets with more PEGylated lipids produce increased US/PA signal compared with those with the standard formulation.
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Our results suggest that increasing the molar percentage of PEGylated lipid reduces the size and size variance of PFCnDs. We investigated the impact of variable shell composition on PFCnD size and US/PA image properties. Producing consistently small, monodisperse PFCnDs remains a challenge without resorting to technically challenging methods. Perfluorocarbon nanodroplets (PFCnDs) are phase-change contrast agents that have the potential to enable extravascular contrast-enhanced ultrasound and photoacoustic (US/PA) imaging.